John (J),
Patricia (P),
Alexis (A),
David (D),
Margie (M),
Viki (V),
Howard (H),
Ray (R)
Scribe:
Gavin (G)
Apologies:
Frank (FB),
Colin (C)
The homework set
We continue our discussions on Enlightenment philosophers with a focus on Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Born in 1712, within a year of David Hume, and almost 100 years before Mill, Rousseau can nevertheless be considered in some ways more of a romanticist than an Enlightenment figure, given his views on the need to address what he saw as the fractured relationship between humankind and nature, as a consequence of the effect of Enlightenment emphasis on the importance of intellect and reason. He had views on how a state best organises politically which continue to inspire today.
Rousseau's basic belief was that all human ills arise from society, in particular how people are educated, as society 'enchains' us. He saw people as 'free', happy and healthy, in their state of nature; as 'noble savages', born with an inherent sentiment of pity, spontaneously expressing sympathy with other human beings. Very different from the Hobbesian view on the state of nature of homo sapiens. Also quite different was Rousseau's view of how the state should be organised politically to 'redeem' people, and the state. He used Geneva, his place of birth, modelled on ancient Sparta, to exemplify his ideas.
His basic idea was that society should be modelled as a single organic unity with a 'single will', which reflected the wills of individuals with society. This societal will he referred to as the general will, which prioritised the common good as the driving force for decision-making; within the context of a social contract. Both the general will and the social contract are hugely important ideas which have influenced political thinking since the Enlightenment, and still do, being even more crucial to consider in politics today as populist governments become more numerous and powerful.
But maybe Rousseau was not quite the political softie as he has been portrayed. His notion that in abiding by the law you are 'forced to be free' is maybe more than a touch Hobbesian. Some philosophers consider his views authoritarian rather than him being a champion of deliberative philosophy. He was certainly a controversialist who had a big falling-out with David Hume. He had novels and other works banned, notably his education theory-based Emile.
There is a useful piece on his concept of the General Will, and how it is applied, in Britannica.
Perhaps you would care to chew over the the following questions:
What exactly is Rousseau's conception of The General Will? How does it differ from the simple sum of all individual wills?
Is the General Will necessarily a reflection of the common interest/good?
How true is his statement that obedience to the law prescribed by oneself is liberty?
Does the belief that man is naturally, simply, good directly lead to an ability to identify, and work for, the common good?
Is the identification of one's true self with the common interest paving a way to totalitarianism?
What can we learn from Rousseau's notion that active citizenship is not something spontaneously acquired, or imposed, but rather it can only be learnt from experience and education?
What makes Rousseau's conception of a social contract different from that identified by Hobbes? Which feels more realistic?
Does the state of nature basis of Rousseau's philosophy appeal more to women than to men? And, btw, why have there been more male than female philosophers?
Was Rousseau more of a novelist, or even anthropologist, than a philosopher?
Plenary Session
Introduction(S)
Rousseau believed man inherently good, uncorrupted by the unnaturalness of society, with on need of possessions, sympathetic and compassionate towards others, in a non-discriminating way.
No place for blame, criticism or hurt feelings.
Dependence on others leads to a lack of freedom. Rousseau believed in freedom as an absolute.
Property ownership as a source of inequality.
Social interactions lead to greed.
Civil society created unhealthy competition.
The more wealth you acquire, the greater your need to protect your possessions.
But he recognised that, even if life was peaceful, people needed to interact, in order to 'actualise'.
There's a tension between the 'noble savage' and the man of culture.
Rousseau believed the Enlightenment had failed; it had over-intellectualised man. Having feelings was the key to understanding reality. Feelings give a better insight. Inherently we know what is right, he believed. In this he was more a figure of the Romantic era.
But Rousseau failed to see that freedom depends on reason: to develop laws to protect us.
The public interest overlaps with the personal interest. Does this lead to a collective body with one will?
Rousseau believed the general will has a metaphysical existence, which demands obedience. In his design for a political society, no-one can do anything without the consent of all: a legislator would be appointed to decide on what issues should be voted on, the decision to be made by a majority. If someone disagrees with the general will, they are mistaken.
Rousseau believed man wants to be good, i.e. obedient to the general will.
This has some parallels with John Rawls' veil of ignorance.
This line of thought led on to Hegel's concept of the will of the state, the French Revolution, Marx, and Hitler.
Rousseau's philosophy influenced James Madison, a Founding Father who worked on the constitution of the USA, but there were areas of disagreement.
Madison was concerned by the threat of factional interests taking over.
Perhaps Rousseau was more of a novelist than a philosopher.
Discussion
Rousseau and the Social Contract
There is a contradiction between Rousseau's belief in education but not in reason.(A)
Some of Rousseau's ideas would not work in a large community.(A)
Rousseau aimed his theories at the smaller community. We must volunteer to be bound by the laws. People's assemblies work well.(M)
Rousseau's background was in Geneva. The cantons of Switzerland, such as Vaud, are known for having lots of plebiscites. Visitors are confronted by numerous "Do not…" signs regarding lawn mowing and laundry.(H)
VR prefers Rousseau's to Hobbes's philosophy insofar as Hobbes gives citizens a once-only opportunity to sign up to the laws of the land, whereas Rousseau offers scope for change, if one's inner being disagrees. One can be too rational if one takes a utilitarian approach to life. In magistracy, the deterministic connection between offence and available punishments doesn't always work.(V)
When one takes a consequentialist approach, it is often very hard to evaluate all the possible consequences.(S)
Most of the philosophers we have studied have focussed on men. Rousseau's analysis seems more feminine.(M)
Rousseau's personal life was bizarre—for example, giving away his five children at birth. Emile takes no account of women.(L)
Rousseau had a tabula rasa to work with, in the form of his children, but rejected it.(S)
Yet he thought wet nurses a very bad idea.(D)
Harold Wilson in 1963 talked about a new social contract in the form of his White Heat speech. But by 1966 he had become corrupted by too much power.(S)
Citizenship classes in the UK are a helpful way to educate and some buy-in to the constitution of the UK.(V)
Citizens assemblies are very much a Rousseau-like concept.(S)
The jury system is a good example of randomly chosen people doing their best to come to the right verdict.(M)
In some countries, immigrants have to sign a citizenship sgreement to complete the process.(V)
Contracts for volunteers at the local level are really important to build trust.(S)
But what if you don't like the system of government? Is it OK to say No?(J)
One needs trusted deliberation, a habit of discussion.(S)
In RT's experience of Canada's creation of a nickel mine in Labrador, extensive consultation with Inuit elders was key to a successful implementation, which resulted in a go-ahead decision with strong restrictions.(R)
Recent guidance to judges, targeted at Extinction Rebellion, says that defendants should not be permitted to state their motivations for their actions.(S)
Democracy was supposed to solve the problem of how to change society without resorting to violence and war.(A)
Civil disobedience led by women may be the only way to solve Iran's current problems.(L)
Russia
Why do Russians vote for Putin? Do they crave the structure he confers?(A)
Putin is king, but he is horribly devious because he creates the danger.(L)
It is important that dissent is allowed. Would we have the courage to object in Russia?(V)
Why do we end up with demagogues, given all the checks and balances in our system?(R)
Their currency is fear—they identify a group or an external threat to be feared.(S)
It may be that Russia employs an AI version of Putin after he has died, to deceive us into believing he still rules.(J)
Putin wants to rebuild the Russia of Catherine the Great. Many of the people of Russia were much better off under communism.(M)
It was a mistake to award Russia the veto previously enjoyed by the USSR on the UN Security Council.(H)
Other topics touched on
Brain differences between men and women.(H)
Women in Probus.(RAY)
Men-only book groups.(H)
Variation in reproduction rates by month.(A)
Books Referenced:
John Rawls (1999). A Theory of Justice. Harvard University Press.
Bernie Sanders (2023). It's OK To Be Angry About Capitalism. Allen Lane.
The Gods Must Be Crazy (1980) In the Kalahari Desert, a Coca-Cola bottle is thrown out of an aeroplane and falls to the ground unbroken. A tribe assumes the bottle to be a gift from their gods, just as they believe plants and animals are, and find many uses for it. But there is only one glass bottle, which causes unforeseen conflict…
